Modern Philosophy

Lectures: 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8

Lecture Notes on Modern Philosophy

Lecture 4

Introduction to the French Enlightenment

The French Enlightenment emerged as a significant intellectual movement during the 18th century, emphasizing reason, skepticism of traditional authority, and a commitment to progress. One of its leading figures was Voltaire, who became a vocal critic of religious and political authoritarianism. His works and ideas helped lay the foundations for modern concepts of freedom, toleration, and rational inquiry.

The Context of 1716 and Justice

The year 1716 marked a symbolic transition into modernity. It saw the burning of Mary and Elizabeth Hicks, the last individuals executed for witchcraft in England. This event reflected the end of a barbaric era and the gradual modernization of justice. Traditional practices, such as trial by ordeal and retributive justice, began to give way to principles of proportionality and reason. Justice was increasingly viewed as a human responsibility rather than a divine mandate, influenced by thinkers like Montaigne, who questioned the morality and certainty of such severe punishments.

Voltaire’s Exile and English Influence

Voltaire’s exile to England was pivotal in shaping his views. During his time there, he was exposed to the works of Francis Bacon, John Locke, and Isaac Newton, as well as the English system of governance and toleration. These experiences deeply influenced his writing, particularly his Letters Concerning the English Nation, in which he highlighted the merits of English intellectual freedom, religious toleration, and political systems compared to the rigidity of French traditions.

Letters Concerning the English Nation

Voltaire’s letters provided a comparative analysis of English and French society. He praised the English for their acceptance of diverse religious practices and the separation of religion from commerce and politics. The Royal Exchange in London, where individuals of various faiths conducted business without conflict, served as a model of toleration. Voltaire argued that the coexistence of many religions fostered peace and prevented tyranny, in contrast to France’s hierarchical and authoritarian religious system.

Through his satirical examination of Quakers, Voltaire illustrated the virtues of simplicity, egalitarianism, and individual spirituality. He contrasted these with the elaborate rituals and hierarchical structures of the Catholic Church, criticizing the lack of personal freedom in French religious practice. His rhetorical strategy included posing as a naïve Frenchman, allowing him to subtly challenge established norms while protecting himself from censorship.

Voltaire’s Perspective on Progress

Voltaire’s admiration for science and reason led him to celebrate figures like Newton, Locke, and Bacon as the true heroes of history. He argued that intellectual and scientific achievements, which enlightened and improved humanity, were far more significant than the conquests of military leaders. This perspective marked a shift in values, prioritizing knowledge and progress over domination and tradition.

The Encyclopédie Project

Inspired by Voltaire and his contemporaries, Diderot and d’Alembert launched the Encyclopédie, a monumental effort to compile and democratize knowledge. The project sought to provide practical and theoretical insights into every field, reflecting the Enlightenment’s commitment to education and progress. It symbolized the integration of reason and empirical science into all aspects of life, emphasizing the application of knowledge to improve society.

Challenges to Authoritarianism

The French Enlightenment was deeply critical of both monarchical and ecclesiastical authority. Voltaire and others advocated for intellectual freedom, the separation of church and state, and the abolition of censorship. Their fiery rhetoric often targeted the oppressive structures of traditional institutions, paving the way for revolutionary changes in governance and society.

Conclusion

Voltaire and the French Enlightenment represent a pivotal moment in intellectual history. Their emphasis on reason, skepticism, and individual freedom challenged centuries-old traditions and laid the groundwork for modern liberal democracy. By advocating for toleration, scientific progress, and the democratization of knowledge, they contributed to a vision of humanity guided by reason and committed to progress.