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The Counter-Enlightenment emerged as a reaction to the Enlightenment during its height, characterized by a critique of reason, individualism, and progress. Key figures like Jean-Jacques Rousseau and David Hume challenged the foundational ideas of Enlightenment thought, proposing alternative views on society, epistemology, and human nature. The movement gained traction around the time of the French Revolution in 1789, a period marked by intense political and ideological shifts.
The French Revolution, beginning in 1789, was a defining moment in modern history. Initially rooted in Enlightenment ideals of reason, liberty, and universal rights, the Revolution unfolded in three distinct phases. The early phase, dominated by aristocrats, sought to reform the monarchy. However, the Revolution soon transformed into an ideological movement, culminating in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. This document emphasized natural, universal rights and the shift from subjects to citizens, reflecting Enlightenment principles.
As the Revolution progressed, the liberal movement lost momentum to the Jacobins, led by figures like Robespierre and Danton. Influenced by Rousseau’s ideas, the Jacobins pursued a radical and authoritarian agenda, inaugurating the Reign of Terror. This period of mass arrests, executions, and ideological purges marked a dramatic departure from the Revolution's liberal beginnings.
Rousseau rejected nearly every tenet of Enlightenment thought, from reason and individualism to liberal property rights. While not a traditional conservative, Rousseau envisioned a different modernity grounded in communal values and a return to a “natural” state of being. He criticized Enlightenment thinkers for undermining religion, which he viewed as a necessary check on the passions of the powerful and a source of solace for the suffering.
For Rousseau, civilization masked a new form of slavery. The arts, sciences, and modern comforts distracted humanity from its loss of true liberty. He argued that property rights, celebrated by Enlightenment liberals, were the root of societal inequality and conflict. In his view, land and resources should belong to everyone collectively, rejecting both feudal and capitalist notions of ownership.
Rousseau also attacked reason, which he claimed fostered egocentrism and isolated individuals. Instead, he emphasized feeling and faith as the true foundations of human connection and morality. His political philosophy, articulated in works like The Social Contract, envisioned a collective society where individuals surrender their personal interests to the common good, creating a new communal identity.
David Hume, though rooted in the empiricist tradition of Bacon and Locke, reached radically skeptical conclusions about knowledge, identity, and causation. He argued that human understanding is based on impressions and memories, rejecting the existence of genuine abstractions or universal principles. For Hume, concepts like causality, the self, and external reality were not grounded in objective impressions but in subjective associations.
Hume’s famous “is-ought” distinction highlighted the difficulty of deriving moral principles from factual observations. He criticized the Enlightenment's reliance on reason as a foundation for ethics, arguing that human behavior is ultimately driven by passions rather than rationality. In his view, reason is merely a tool subordinate to emotional and instinctual forces.
While Rousseau focused on social and political issues, advocating for communalism and moral regeneration, Hume’s contributions were primarily epistemological and metaphysical. Together, they undermined the Enlightenment’s optimistic view of human potential and progress, highlighting the limitations of reason and the dangers of unrestrained individualism.
The Counter-Enlightenment introduced alternative pathways for modern thought, challenging the Enlightenment’s faith in reason and progress. Rousseau’s communalism and critique of property influenced socialist and collectivist ideologies, while Hume’s skepticism reshaped debates on epistemology and metaphysics. These ideas continue to shape philosophical and political discourse, offering a critical lens through which to evaluate the promises and perils of modernity.